International Trade Agreements Research Articles

Which SDM Model, CLIMEX vs. MaxEnt, Best Forecasts Aeolesthes sarta Distribution at a Global Scale under Climate Change Scenarios?

A precise evaluation of the risk of establishing insect pests is essential for national plant protection organizations. This accuracy is crucial in negotiating international trade agreements for forestry-related commodities, which have the potential to carry pests and lead to unintended introductions in the importing countries. In our study, we employed both mechanistic and correlative niche models to assess and map the global patterns of potential establishment for Aeolesthes sarta under current and future climates. This insect is a significant pest affecting tree species of the genus Populus, Salix, Acer, Malus, Juglans, and other hardwood trees. Notably, it is also categorized as a quarantine pest in countries where it is not currently present. The mechanistic model, CLIMEX, was calibrated using species-specific physiological tolerance thresholds, providing a detailed understanding of the environmental factors influencing the species. In contrast, the correlative model, maximum entropy (MaxEnt), utilized species occurrences and spatial climatic data, offering insights into the species’ distribution based on observed data and environmental conditions. The projected potential distribution from CLIMEX and MaxEnt models aligns well with the currently known distribution of A. sarta. CLIMEX predicts a broader global distribution than MaxEnt, indicating that most central and southern hemispheres are suitable for its distribution, excluding the extreme northern hemisphere, central African countries, and the northern part of Australia. Both models accurately predict the known distribution of A. sarta in the Asian continent, and their projections suggest a slight overall increase in the global distribution range of A. sarta with future changes in climate temperature, majorly concentrating in the central and northern hemispheres. Furthermore, the models anticipate suitable conditions in Europe and North America, where A. sarta currently does not occur but where its preferred host species, Populus alba, is present. The main environmental variables associated with the distribution of A. sarta at a global level were the average annual temperature and precipitation rate. The predictive models developed in this study offer insights into the global risk of A. sarta establishment and can be valuable for monitoring potential pest introductions in different countries. Additionally, policymakers and trade negotiators can utilize these models to make science-based decisions regarding pest management and international trade agreements.

Impact of International Trade Agreements on Corporate Law

International Trade Agreements (ITAs) have a significant impact on corporate law. ITAs typically include provisions that affect a wide range of corporate law issues, such as reducing or eliminating tariffs and other trade barriers making it easier for corporations to export their goods and services to foreign markets, other provisions might protect foreign investment and promote investment flows between countries making it more attractive for corporations to invest in foreign markets. Some ITAs protect intellectual property rights, such as trademarks, copyrights, and patents that is important for corporations that rely on intellectual property to protect their products and services and ITAs also promote competition and prohibit anti-competitive practices which help ensuring that corporations compete fairly in the global marketplace. In addition, ITAs can also have a broader impact, for instance, ITAs can promote the adoption of common legal standards and practices, making it easier for corporations to do business in different countries. For Example, The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) includes provisions that made it easier for corporations to move goods and services between the United States, Canada, and Mexico leading to increased investment flows between these countries. The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) has helped to strengthen the protection of intellectual property rights around the world which benefited corporations that rely on intellectual property to protect their products and services. The Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) includes provisions that promote competition and prohibit anti-competitive practices in the Asia-Pacific region ensuring that corporations are competing fairly in the market. Overall, this Research Paper summarises how ITAs have a significant impact on corporate law and Corporations involved in international trade should be aware of the provisions of the relevant ITAs and how these provisions may affect their business.

International Labor Relations

International Labor Relations (ILR) encapsulates the multifaceted interactions and dynamics shaping the global workforce's landscape. In an increasingly interconnected world, characterized by globalization, technological advancements, and economic interdependence, labor relations extend beyond national boundaries, influencing and being influenced by various factors. This abstract provides a succinct overview of the key themes, challenges, and opportunities within the realm of International Labor Relations. The study of ILR encompasses diverse aspects, including cross-border labor migration, multinational corporations' employment practices, labor standards, and international trade agreements' impact on employment. Central to ILR is the examination of the interactions between governments, employers, workers, and international organizations, as they navigate complex socio-economic and political contexts. Globalization has profoundly shaped ILR, fostering the integration of economies and labor markets across countries. As a result, labor issues increasingly transcend national borders, posing both opportunities and challenges for workers, employers, and policymakers. Technological advancements, such as automation and digitalization, further complicate labor dynamics, influencing employment patterns and skills requirements on a global scale. Challenges within ILR include ensuring decent work conditions, protecting workers' rights, and addressing inequalities in labor markets. Issues such as informal employment, gender disparities, and the informalization of labor pose significant hurdles to achieving inclusive and sustainable growth. Moreover, the rise of global supply chains has raised concerns about labor exploitation and the enforcement of labor standards across borders. International organizations play a crucial role in shaping ILR through the development and implementation of labor standards, conventions, and guidelines. Institutions like the International Labour Organization (ILO) provide platforms for dialogue and cooperation among governments, employers, and workers to address labor-related challenges and promote social justice. In conclusion, International Labor Relations are complex and dynamic, influenced by globalization, technological advancements, and economic forces. Addressing the diverse challenges within ILR requires collaborative efforts from governments, employers, workers, and international organizations to ensure fair and inclusive labor practices and promote sustainable development globally.   Received: 25 December 2023 / Accepted: 25 February 2024 / Published: 23 April 2024

The Law and Economics of International Trade Agreements, written by Alan O. Sykes

The Law and Economics of International Trade Agreements, written by Alan O. Sykes

The Recent Development On The Discipline Of Services Domestic Regulation And The Debate On The Necessity Test: From The Perspective Of The CPTPP, RCEP, And SDR Reference Paper

The discipline of services domestic regulation (“SDR discipline”), with a view to ensuring progressive liberalization of trade in services while also respecting the national regulatory prerogatives at the same time, addresses issues concerning the formulation, publication, and administration of SDR, and the authorization for the supply of a service. In addition to Article VI General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), an increasing number of international trade agreements has developed the SDR discipline with GATS-plus or GATS-extra characteristics, which helps enhance the transparency and regulatory quality of SDR, promote trade facilitation and increase the predictability and efficiency of authorization procedures for the services providers hoping to do business in foreign markets. This paper investigates the negotiating history of the SDR discipline at the multilateral, plurilateral, and regional levels, explores the evolving trends of the SDR discipline from the perspective of the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), and the Reference Paper on SDR, and addresses the debate on the necessity test surrounding the SDR discipline negotiation. services domestic regulation, necessity test, transparency, trade facilitation, predictability of authorization, gender equality

New Generation EU Agreements – The Basis for Future World Trade

International trade agreements contribute to the development of international trade and services. The European Union is currently modernizing the system and structure of international agreements related to international trade, investment and services. The aim of the scientific study is to clarify and identify the characteristic features of the agreements of new generation that are concluded between the European Union and non-EU member states. Based on the facts, we can confirm that trade policy supports, among others, values such as the protection of human rights, the protection of labor rights, the environment and the fight against climate change. Such an approach of the European Union to the liberalization of world trade through comprehensive trade agreements is also supported by the strategy of the European Commission „Trade for All”.

International Trade Agreements and Livestock Industries

Purpose: The general objective of the study was to explore international trade agreements and livestock industries.
 Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library.
 Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to food safety regulations. The relationship between international trade agreements and livestock industries is complex, offering both opportunities and challenges. While these agreements facilitate market access and competitiveness for livestock producers, they also pose risks such as increased competition from foreign imports and environmental sustainability concerns. The effectiveness of trade agreements in promoting sustainable growth hinges on aligning trade objectives with broader policy goals, including food security and social welfare. Policymakers must strike a balance between promoting trade liberalization and safeguarding domestic interests, considering the diverse impacts on stakeholders. Moving forward, there is a need for greater coherence between trade policies and development objectives, emphasizing inclusive growth and cooperation to ensure the sustainable development of livestock industries globally.
 Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Comparative Advantage theory, Heckscher-Ohlin model and New Trade theory may be used to anchor future studies on international trade agreements and livestock industries. The study yielded several key recommendations. These included enhancing the harmonization of sanitary and phytosanitary standards, promoting mutual recognition of regulatory measures, investing in infrastructure and capacity building, facilitating market access and diversification, promoting sustainable production practices, strengthening monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, and promoting inclusive and participatory decision-making processes. These recommendations aimed to improve market access, ensure compliance with trade commitments, enhance sustainability, and foster inclusive development in the livestock sector.

Is the WTO terminally ill? Threats to the international trading system

The international trading system is under threat. Many observers have already expressed serious concerns about the impact of Covid, the war in Ukraine, tensions over Taiwan and other natural and man-made disasters and their effects on the international trading system. Some even doubt its viability and chances of survival. The purpose of this paper is to assess the weight of those arguments. It is argued that the turmoil in global markets is, of course, a factor endangering the system, but the system is threatened even more by its own weaknesses. These are various imperfections in the international trade agreements in the WTO which are dividing the international community into separate groups. It is also shown that economic theory does not help us much to show the directions for policy makers to reach optimal trade agreements. It is argued that the splitting of countries into different negotiating and trading blocs is the optimal step under present conditions.

Editorial: Corporate law and governance — Globalised and interconnected

The first issue of the Corporate Law & Governance Review features 10 articles, presenting interesting findings and vigorous scholarly debate on a wide range of topics. The authors of the articles used various research methodologies, thus covering a wide range of topics such as agrarian reforms, property rights, public housing policies, accounting information systems, international trade agreements, artificial intelligence, corporate governance during COVID-19. pandemic, regulatory impact assessment, employee rights and international arbitration. At the same time, the articles focus on various jurisdictions around the world: from the Western Balkans to Iceland and from Thailand to Indonesia.

Regulation of Multinational Enterprises by Host Countries

Currently, there exist numerous multinational enterprises situated in various regions across the globe. Since the 1990s, the exponential surge in the quantity of multinational enterprises has undeniably contributed to the economic advancement of diverse host nations and the global community. However, concurrently, the management of these multinational enterprises has also emerged as a formidable challenge confronted by host countries. This paper examines the international economic environment as the backdrop, incorporating economic principles and international trade agreements. By conducting a comprehensive analysis of various agreements and real-life instances, it delves into the specific measures implemented by host countries to regulate multinational enterprises within their borders. Subsequently, the paper discerns the fundamental objectives behind the host country's regulation of MNEs. Furthermore, it scrutinizes the two primary challenges encountered by the host country in regulating multinational enterprises, ultimately identifying the crux of the issue, namely, the distribution of benefits between the host country and the MNEs.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN STATE AID LAW CONCERNING FREE TRADE ZONES

This article examines a recent ruling alongside EU legislative advancements concerning the application of EU State aid regulations to free trade zones. The correct application of state aid rules to free trade zones is crucial for several reasons, encompassing legal, economic, and political dimensions. State aid rules help to maintain a level playing field for all market participants. By ensuring that state aid is applied correctly in free trade zones, unfair advantages or disadvantages are minimized, promoting fair competition among businesses. The correct applicability of state aid rules aligns with international trade agreements and standards. It ensures that a region or country is in compliance with broader economic and trade practices which could affect international relations and trade partnerships. Further, State aid rules aim to prevent market distortions that could arise from improper subsidies or aid. By applying these rules correctly in free trade zones, economic efficiency can be better achieved, and resources can be allocated more optimally. Lastly, predictability and legal certainty are essential for investor confidence. When state aid rules are correctly applied, investors have a clearer understanding of the legal and economic environment, which may lead to increased investment and economic growth.One of the most recent case-law of the European Court of Justice (“ECJ”) is the ruling of September 21, 2022, in the case T-95/21 concerning the Madeira Free Zone State aid scheme. The ECJ affirmed that the Europeans Commission’s (hereinafter: Commission) conclusion, which stated that the implementation of the Madeira Free Zone State aid scheme (Regime III) did not adhere to the approved conditions, was accurate. The scheme was not implemented according to State aid law, and therefore it must be recovered. The primary objective of the scheme was to enhance the economic development of Madeira through tax incentives. Consequently, the General Court dismissed Portugal’s appeal against the Commission’s decision (KPMG et al., 2022). The authority however, which was involved in granting the State aid, was not only Portugal but also Região Autónoma da Madeira (Autonomous Region of Madeira, Portugal, hereinafter “RAM”) and therefore, it decided to appeal the Commission’s decision, as individual applicant. Same as Portugual, RAM which seeks annulment of Articles 1 and 4 to 6 of Commission Decision (EU) 2022/1414 of 4 December 2020 on the aid scheme SA.21259 (2018/C) (ex 2018/NN) implemented by Portugal in favour of the free zone of Madeira (Zona Franca da Madeira - ZFM) - Scheme III (OJ 2022, L 217, p. 49). Therefore, on June 12, 2023, the General Court was required to render a judgment on the same subject matter as its decision on September 21, 2022 (Case T-131/21 Região Autónoma da Madeira v Commission, 2023). The only distinction is that the current applicant is different from the previous case.

Regulating SOEs Through the SCM Agreement: Utilizing the ‘Public Body’ Jurisprudence to Cover SOEs

In January 2020, trade ministers from the EU, the US, and Japan proposed several amendments to the WTO Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM) Agreement. One of the proposals was to examine whether to incorporate state-owned enterprises (SOEs) into the definition of the public body in the SCM Agreement. A similar approach was adopted in the EU’s white paper of June 2020. These proposals present that the current WTO jurisprudence is not adequate to regulate financial contributions by SOEs. On the other hand, recent international trade agreements suggest another type of SOE regulation by providing a set of independent norms on SOEs. As such, there are two options for regulating subsidization by SOEs in the current international trade regime: a combined scheme and a separate scheme. This article argues that a combined scheme that regulates SOEs through public body concept in the WTO SCM Agreement is a more adequate formula than a separate one. Considering aggravating trade disputes among major trading partners surrounding the SOEs a better method to regulate SOEs in a single and coherent WTO SCM Agreement is suggested. state-owned enterprises, SCM Agreement, subsidization, public body, governmental authority, combined scheme, separate scheme

Analyzing the decision-making process of international trade agreements using Petri nets

Abstract This paper aims to analyze regulatory cooperation in international trade agreements by combining petri net models with intuitionistic fuzzy petri net models. A security information system for international trade agreements combines formal mathematical methods with visual graphics. The correlation matrix and invariants method is utilized to analyze invariants in international trade agreements. The correlation matrix reorganization algorithm is employed to examine correlation factors in the decision-making process of international trade agreements. The results show that the fuzzy Petri net model has the least fluctuation in analyzing the information security posture value of international trade agreements, and the security posture value floats between 6.7 and 7.3. The newest ITA regulation is 0.2 higher than the traditional regulation in consistency, the embodiment of the newest ITA regulation in democracy is 0.75, and the transparency in the newest ITA regulation is increased by 0.3. This paper’s research enhances the useful data and information for analyzing the factors influencing ITAs’ decision-making.

Internasional Trade Regulation and its Impact on Macroeconomics: An Internasional Law Perspective

This journal article examines the dynamic relationship between international trade regulation and macroeconomics from the lens of international law. International trade, with its complex legal framework, plays a pivotal role in shaping the global economic landscape. Understanding the intricate interplay between trade regulations and macroeconomic variables is crucial for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners alike.
 Through a comprehensive analysis of international trade agreements, dispute settlement mechanisms, and trade policies, this research investigates the legal mechanisms that govern global commerce. It explores the impact of trade regulations on key macroeconomic indicators, such as economic growth, employment, inflation, and balance of payments. This study takes into consideration both the multilateral trading system, exemplified by the World Trade Organization, and regional trade agreements to provide a holistic view of the subject.
 The findings highlight the significant influence of international trade regulation on a nation's economic performance. Effective trade regulation can stimulate economic growth, enhance market access for goods and services, and promote stability in global markets. Conversely, trade disputes and protectionist measures can disrupt economic activities and lead to adverse macroeconomic consequences.
 Furthermore, this research delves into the legal mechanisms available to states to address trade-related disputes and their potential implications on macroeconomic stability. It underscores the importance of a rules-based international trading system in promoting global economic well-being.
 By analyzing international trade regulation through an international law perspective, this article aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on the relationship between law and economics. It underscores the significance of legal frameworks in shaping macroeconomic outcomes and highlights the need for harmonizing trade policies with broader economic objectives. Ultimately, the research underscores the role of international law as a tool for promoting economic development and stability in the context of global trade.

Reformation of the Iraqi legal system by the Coalition Provisional Authority after 2003 as an attempt towards WTO affiliation

The World Trade Organization (WTO) plays an important role in the establishment of trade relations between its member nations through multilateral international trade agreements, which are considered an important source of international law that regulate commercial transactions, and reduce impediments to international trade among its members. Therefore, countries that are yet to join this organization continually attempt to do so. Thus, it is not in Iraq’s interest to remain outside the scope of the organization. This analytical study investigates the role of the Coalition Provisional Authority after 2003 and the fall of the Baath regime in the reformation of the Iraqi law system, especially with regard to commercial laws and Iraq’s integration with the international economic system following its accession to the WTO. The article concludes that these Coalition-led amendments to Iraqi laws laid the legal foundations for the opening of the Iraqi market. It argues that despite the continuation of this approach and the amendment of laws by the Iraqi parliament and government, there remain some legal obstacles to Iraq’s accession to the WTO. The study also suggests the existence of laws that are yet to be passed or amended.

The Role of Public Policies in Increasing Foreign Direct Investments

Public policies play a crucial role in facilitating and promoting foreign direct investments (FDI) within a nation. This study examines the influence of government policies on foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows and delineates essential approaches for fostering the attraction of international investors. This study identifies five primary elements that exert influence on foreign direct investment (FDI) through the implementation of public policies. These aspects include investment incentives, the regulatory environment, infrastructure development, political stability, and trade agreements. Through a comprehensive analysis of these elements, governments have the ability to formulate policies that effectively stimulate Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and foster substantial economic growth. The present analysis underscores the significance of a conducive investment environment, encompassing tax incentives, streamlined regulatory frameworks, and efficient infrastructure. The presence of political stability and a strong adherence to the rule of law creates a favorable and secure climate for potential investors. Finally, engaging in active involvement in international trade agreements has the potential to enhance market access and strengthen foreign direct investment (FDI). In summary, it can be argued that the implementation of effective public policies has the potential to greatly enhance foreign direct investment (FDI), hence stimulating economic growth and promoting international interconnectedness.

Brexit and Canadadvent: An application of graphs and hypergraphs to recent international trade agreements

This paper uses a network approach to study the relationship between trade agreements and trade flows. For the first time in the literature, hypergraphs are used to capture the topology of trade agreements, while the usual graphs are used to represent trade flows. For our analysis, we focused on a snapshot of data from July 2017, before CETA as an agreement in force only in September 2017. An analysis of modularity conducted on both the trade agreements and the trade flows shows an imperfect correspondence between the communities of countries found within the two networks. Although the motivations of Brexit were multiple and, for the most part, far from commercial concerns, Brexit appears as a way to reconcile the networks of flows and agreements. On the other hand, Canada already belonged to the European cluster of trade agreements before the CETA agreement, which therefore appears only as an ex post confirmation of an existing situation.

The Role of Trade Agreements in Trade Creation or Trade Diversion: A Case of Pakistan

International Trade agreements are the source of trade creation or trade diversion. In the case of trade creation, it helps to rapid, sustainable economic development. This study assesses the trade creation and diversion effect for the notified trade agreements of Pakistan. This manuscript is based on an augmented gravity model with robust theoretical multilateral resistance terms. The model analyzes the impacts of trade agreements by using panel data over a period from 1962 to 2020. Making use of Poisson Pseudo maximum likelihood (PPML) family models with fixed effects, time-specific and dummy variables, it removes the issues of Jensen’s inequality E(lnXij ) ≠ lnE(Xij), heteroscedasticity, and zero-trade errors. This study's outcomes confirm that the trade agreements of Pakistan positively impact trade and exports. It can be concluded from this study that notified trade agreements of Pakistan are a source of trade creation. It further suggests that Pakistan should continue to pursue trade agreements with countries with complementary economies and focus on previously signed mutual agreements that are still not in force.

Non-compliance with the World Trade Organization agreements by exporters of the European bumblebee, Bombus terrestris

International companies commercially rear bumblebees worldwide, the trade of which is regulated through agreements established by the World Trade Organization (WTO). Scientific studies have shown multiple negative effects of introduced commercial bumblebees on native bees in Japan, Australia, Sweden, Israel, Chile, and Argentina, calling into question the compliance of exporting with some of the established WTO international sanitary regulations. We analyzed international WTO sanitary regulations focusing on the international trade of bumblebees from the European Union (EU) and Israel, especially regarding bumblebee exports to Chile and their side effects in neighboring Argentina. We have gathered evidence showing that exporters of bumblebees do not comply with WTO international trade agreements in at least two ways: (1) the quality of commercialized bumblebees differs from the quality declared in their certifications, and (2) the countries that sell the bumblebees violate sanitary agreements, producing negative effects on other native pollinating insects and causing a cascade of adverse impacts affecting both the environment and agriculture. This situation suggests that companies that raise bumblebees are currently in breach of WTO regulations and continue to contribute to major environmental damage in southern South America and elsewhere.

A review of international trade and investment agreements and nutrition policy space in the Pacific.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Pacific are heavily reliant on imported foods which are often nutritionally deficient, and typically high in salt, fat, and sugar. To curb nutrition-related non-communicable diseases, nutrition policies are needed to create food environments that promote healthy diets. However, international trade and investment agreements (TIAs) may interfere with the policy space for SIDS to regulate their food environments by requiring member states to meet trade obligations that could conflict with their nutrition policy goals. In this review, we identify real examples of where TIAs have been responsible for changes in Pacific SIDS' nutrition policies alongside the potential for further constraints on healthy nutrition policies from Pacific Island participation in TIAs. In addition, we note the effects of regulatory chill from TIA obligations in Pacific SIDS, whereby healthy nutrition policies are not considered, developed, or implemented due to the threat of trade disputes or the complexity of TIA procedural requirements. Existing literature indicates that TIAs have shaped nutrition policies to fit within the global trade paradigm despite SIDS' nutrition policy imperatives. More can be done locally, regionally, and internationally to increase the importance of nutrition in the trade agenda, leverage regional institutions to champion nutrition regulation and support SIDS in navigating the trade and nutrition policy environment.